It looks like you got a messed up filesystem, and maybe a drive on the brink of failure. Your best bet at this point might be to zero out the drive, see what smartctl reports, and start with a fresh install. There are some tools for data recovery, the one you might want to look at is lde, which can be downloaded vi apt.
Another command you can try, for diagnostic purposes, is badblocks. And of course there's testdisk.

http://lde.sourceforge.net/

http://linux.die.net/man/8/badblocks

http://www.cgsecurity.org/wiki/TestDisk

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E2fsprogs


HTH